Surface–atmosphere interactions over complex urban terrain in Helsinki, Finland

Timo Vesala; Leena Järvi; Samuli Launiainen; Andrei Sogachev; Üllar Rannik; Ivan Mammarella; Erkki Siivola; Petri Keronen; Janne Rinne; Anu Riikonen; Eero Nikinmaa

doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2007.00312.x

Authors:

Timo Vesala ,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Leena Järvi,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Samuli Launiainen,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Andrei Sogachev,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Üllar Rannik,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Ivan Mammarella,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Erkki Siivola,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Petri Keronen,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Janne Rinne,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Anu Riikonen,

Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Eero Nikinmaa

Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

Abstract

Long-term measurements of fluxes of sensible heat (H), latent heat (LE) and carbon dioxide (F_c) were made from December 2005 to August 2006 over an urban landscape in Helsinki, Finland using the direct micrometeorological eddy covariance technique. Three distinguished sectors of land-use cover (vegetation, roads and buildings) allowed comparisons of fluxes over different urban surfaces. The normalized standard deviation of wind and scalars as a function of atmospheric stability were typical for rough surfaces, as were turbulence spectra and cospectra. Footprint analysis was performed by a boundary-layer one and half-order closure model allowing for discrimination of surface and canopy sinks/sources and complex topography. Fluxes were analysed as average diurnal courses over winter, spring and summer periods. H exceeded LE reaching 300 W m^-2 over urban and road surfaces in the summer and it was close to 100 W m^-2 in the winter. LE was highest in the summer over vegetation cover attaining 150 W m^-2. The emission rate of CO₂ was high over road sector [20 μmol (m²s)^-1] [Correction added after online publication 16 Oct 2007: 30 μmol changed to 20 μmol] while in the vegetation sector it remained below 5 μmol (m²s)^-1 and at summertime reached even −10 μmol (m²s)^-1 [Correction added after online publication 16 Oct 2007: wording of sentence altered]. Effluxes from soil measured by chambers were 1-3 μmol (m²s)^-1. F_c correlated with traffic density and a background non-vehicle flux was 1 μmol (m²s)-1 [Correction added after online publication 16 Oct 2007: 2 μmol changed to 1 μmol].

How to Cite: Vesala, T., Järvi, L., Launiainen, S., Sogachev, A., Rannik, Ü., Mammarella, I., Siivola, E., Keronen, P., Rinne, J., Riikonen, A. and Nikinmaa, E., 2008. Surface–atmosphere interactions over complex urban terrain in Helsinki, Finland. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 60(2), pp.188–199. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2007.00312.x

Accepted on 1 Jul 2007 Submitted on 1 Dec 2006

Reference

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Burba , G. , Anderson , D. , Liukang , Xu and McDermitt , D . 2006 . Correcting apparent off-season CO2 uptake due to surface heating of an open path gas analyzer: progress report of an ongoing study. Proceedings of 27th Annual Conference of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology , Amer. Met. Soc., San Diego, California, USA, pp. 1 – 13 .

Constantin , J. , Grelle , A. , Ibrom , A ., ja Morgenstern, K. 1999. Flux partitioning between understorey and overstorey in a boreal spruce/pine forest determined by the eddy covariance method. Agric. For Meteorol . 98-99, 629 – 643 .

De Bruin , H. A. R. , Kohsiek , W. and Van Den Hurk , J. J. M . 1993 . A verification of some methods to determine the fluxes of momentum, sensible heat, and water vapor using standard deviation and structure parameter of scalar meteorological quantities . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 63 , 231 – 257 .

Eugster , W. , Kling , G. , Jonas , T. , McFadden , J. P. , Wiiest , A. and co-authors. 2003. CO2 exchange between air and water in an Arctic Alaskan and midlatitude Swiss lake: importance of convective mixing. J. Geophys. Res. 108(D12), 4362, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002653 . Finnigan, J. 2004. The footprint concenpt in complex terrain. Agric. For MeteoroL. 127 , 117 – 129 .

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Foken , T. H. , and Wichura , B . 1996 . Tools for quality assessment of surface-based flux measurements . Agric. For MeteoroL 78 , 83 – 105 .

Grimmond , C. S. B. , King , T. S. , Cropley , F. D. , Nowak , D. J. and Souch , C . 2002 . Local-scale fluxes of carbon dioxide in urban environments: methodological challenges and results from Chicago . Environ. Pollut . 116 , 243 – 254 .

Grimmond , C. S. B. and Oke , T . 1999 . Aerodynamic Properties of Urban Areas Derived from Analysis of Surface Form . J. Appl. Meteorol . 38 , 1262 – 1292 .

Grimmond , C. S. B. , Salmond , J. A. , Oke , T. R. , Offerle , B. and Lemonsu , A . 2004 . Flux and turbulence measurements at a dense urban site in Marseille: heat, mass (water, carbon dioxide) and momentum . J. Geophys. Res . 109 ( D24 ), D24101 , https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JDO04936 .

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Markkanen , T. , Rannik , Ü. , Keronen , P. , Suni , T. and Vesala , T. 2001. Eddy covariance fluxes over a boreal Scots pine forest. Boreal Env. Res . 6 , 65 – 78 .

Moriwaki , R. and Kanda , M . 2004 . Seasonal and diurnal fluxes of radiation, heat, water vapour, and carbon dioxide over a suburban Area . J. AppL Meteorol . 43 , 1700 – 1710 .

Markkanen , T. , Rannik , U. , Marcolla , B. , Cescatti , A. and Vesala , T . 2003 . Footprints and feches for fluxes over forest canopies with varying structure and density . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 106 , 437 – 459 .

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Nemitz , E. , Hargreaves , K. J. , McDonald , A. G. , Dorsey , J. R. and Fowler , D . 2002 . Micrometeorological measurements of the urban heat budget and CO2 emissions on a city scale . Environ. Sci. TechnoL 36 , 3139 – 3146 .

Rannik , U. , Altimir , N. , Raittila , J. , Suni , T. , Gaman , A. and co-authors. 2002. Fluxes of carbon dioxide and water vapour over Scots pine forest and clearing. Agric. For Meteorol . 111 , 187 – 202 .

Roth , M . 2000 . Review of atmospheric turbulence over cities . Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc . 126 , 941 – 990 .

Roth , M. and Oke , T. R . 1995 . Relative efficiencies of turbulent transfer of heat, mass and momentum over a patchy urban surface. J. Atmos. Sci . 52 , 1863 – 1874 .

Salmond , J. A. , Oke , T. R. , Grimmond , C. S. B. , Roberts , S. and Offerle , B . 2005 . Venting of heat and carbon dioxide from urban canyons at night . J. AppL Meteorol . 44 , 1180 – 1194 .

Schmid , H. P . 1994 . Source areas for scalar and scalar fluxes . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 67 , 293 – 318 .

Schmid , H. P . 2002 . Footprint modeling for vegetation atmosphere exchange studies: a review and perspective . Agric. For. Meteorol . 113 , 159 – 183 .

Schuepp , P. H. , Leclerc , M. Y. , MacPherson , J. I. and Desjardins , R. L . 1990 . Footprint prediction of scalar fluxes from analytical solutions of the diffusion equation . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 50 , 355 – 373 .

Soegaard , H. and Moller-Jensen , L . 2003 . Towards a spatial CO2 budget of a metropolitan region based on textural image classification and flux measurements . Remote Sens. Environ . 87 , 283 – 294 .

Sogachev , A. Y. and Lloyd , J. J . 2004 . Using a one-and-a-half order closure model of the atmospheric boundary layer for surface flux footprint estimation . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 112 , 467 – 502 .

Sogachev , A. and Panferov , O . 2006 . Modification of two-equation models to account for plant drag . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 121 , 229 – 266 .

Sogachev , A. , Panferov , O. , Gravenhorst , G. and Vesala , T . 2004b . Numerical analysis of flux footprints for different landscapes . Theoretical and Applied Climatology 80 , 169 – 185 .

Sogachev , A. , Rannik , U. and Vesala , T . 2004a . On flux footprints over the complex terrain covered by a heterogeneous forest . Agric. For Meteorol . 127 , 143 – 158 .

Sogachev , A. , Menzhulin , G. , Heimann , M. and Lloyd , J . 2002 . A simple three-dimensional canopy - planetary boundary layer simulation model for scalar concentrations and fluxes . Tellus 54B ( 5 ), 784 – 819 .

Stull , R. B . 1988 . An introduction to boundary-layer meteorology . Kluwer Academic Publishers .

Suni , T. , Rinne , J. , Reissell , A. , Altimir , N. , Keronen , P. and co-authors. 2003. Long-term measurements of surface fluxes above a Scot pine forest in Hyytiälä. southern Finland, 1996-2001. Boreal Environ. Res . 8 , 287 – 301 .

Vogt , R. , Christensen , A. , Rotach , M. W. , Roth , M. and Satyanarayana , A. N. V . 2003 . Fluxes and profiles of CO2 in the urban roughness sublayer. Preprints, 5th International Conference on Urban Climate , Lodz, Poland, International Association for Urban Climate, 321 – 324 .

Vogt , R. , Christensen , A. , Rotach , M. W. , Roth , M. and Satyanarayana , A. N. V . 2006 . Temporal dynamics of CO2 fluxes and profiles over a Central European city . Theor AppL Climatol . 84 , 117 – 126

Webb , E. K. , Pearman , G. I. and Leuning , R . 1980 . Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer . Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc . 106 , 85 – 100 .

Wilczak , J. M. , Oncley , S. P. and Stage , S. A . 2001 . Sonic anemometer Tilt Correction Algorithms . Boundary Layer Meteorol . 99 , 127 – 150 .

[CIT0001] Aubinet , M. , Berbigier , P. , Bernhofer , Ch. Cescatti , A. , Feigenwinter , C. and co-authors. 2005. Comparing CO2 storage and advection conditions at night at different carboeuroflux sites. Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 116 , 63 – 93 .

[CIT0002] Aubinet , M. , Grelle , A. , Ibrom , A. , Rannilc , C. , Moncrieff , J. and co-authors. 2000. Estimates of the annual net carbon and water exchange of European forests: the EUROFLUX methodology. Adv. EcoL Res . 30 , 114 – 175 .

[CIT0003] Baldocchi , D. , Falqe , E. , Gu , L. H. Olson , R. , Hollinger , D. and co-authors. 2001. FLUXNET: A new tol to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapour, and energy flux densities. Bull. Amer MeteoroL Soc . 82 , 2415 – 2434 .

[CIT0004] Burba , G. , Anderson , D. , Liukang , Xu and McDermitt , D . 2006 . Correcting apparent off-season CO2 uptake due to surface heating of an open path gas analyzer: progress report of an ongoing study. Proceedings of 27th Annual Conference of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology , Amer. Met. Soc., San Diego, California, USA, pp. 1 – 13 .

[CIT0005] Constantin , J. , Grelle , A. , Ibrom , A ., ja Morgenstern, K. 1999. Flux partitioning between understorey and overstorey in a boreal spruce/pine forest determined by the eddy covariance method. Agric. For Meteorol . 98-99, 629 – 643 .

[CIT0006] De Bruin , H. A. R. , Kohsiek , W. and Van Den Hurk , J. J. M . 1993 . A verification of some methods to determine the fluxes of momentum, sensible heat, and water vapor using standard deviation and structure parameter of scalar meteorological quantities . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 63 , 231 – 257 .

[CIT0007] Eugster , W. , Kling , G. , Jonas , T. , McFadden , J. P. , Wiiest , A. and co-authors. 2003. CO2 exchange between air and water in an Arctic Alaskan and midlatitude Swiss lake: importance of convective mixing. J. Geophys. Res. 108(D12), 4362, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002653 . Finnigan, J. 2004. The footprint concenpt in complex terrain. Agric. For MeteoroL. 127 , 117 – 129 .

[CIT0008] Foken , T . 2006 . 50 years of te Monin-Obulchov similarity theory . Boundary-Layer MeteoroL 119 , 431 – 447 .

[CIT0009] Foken , T. H. , and Wichura , B . 1996 . Tools for quality assessment of surface-based flux measurements . Agric. For MeteoroL 78 , 83 – 105 .

[CIT0010] Grimmond , C. S. B. , King , T. S. , Cropley , F. D. , Nowak , D. J. and Souch , C . 2002 . Local-scale fluxes of carbon dioxide in urban environments: methodological challenges and results from Chicago . Environ. Pollut . 116 , 243 – 254 .

[CIT0011] Grimmond , C. S. B. and Oke , T . 1999 . Aerodynamic Properties of Urban Areas Derived from Analysis of Surface Form . J. Appl. Meteorol . 38 , 1262 – 1292 .

[CIT0012] Grimmond , C. S. B. , Salmond , J. A. , Oke , T. R. , Offerle , B. and Lemonsu , A . 2004 . Flux and turbulence measurements at a dense urban site in Marseille: heat, mass (water, carbon dioxide) and momentum . J. Geophys. Res . 109 ( D24 ), D24101 , https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JDO04936 .

[CIT0013] Kaimal , J. C. and Kristensen , L . 1991 . Time series tapering for short data samples . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 57 , 187 – 194 .

[CIT0014] Kolari , R , Kulmala , L. , Tupek , B. , Alm , J. , Han , P. and co-authors. 2005. Photosynthetic production of boreal forest floor vegetation; seasonal and spatial variation. Proceedings of BACCI, NECC and FCoE activities 2005 , Book A, Finnish Association for Aerosol Research, 249 – 254 .

[CIT0015] Lilleberg , I. and Hellman , T . 2006 . Traffic trends in Helsinki in 2005 (in Finnish) . Helsinki City Planning Department .

[CIT0016] Markkanen , T. , Rannik , Ü. , Keronen , P. , Suni , T. and Vesala , T. 2001. Eddy covariance fluxes over a boreal Scots pine forest. Boreal Env. Res . 6 , 65 – 78 .

[CIT0017] Moriwaki , R. and Kanda , M . 2004 . Seasonal and diurnal fluxes of radiation, heat, water vapour, and carbon dioxide over a suburban Area . J. AppL Meteorol . 43 , 1700 – 1710 .

[CIT0018] Markkanen , T. , Rannik , U. , Marcolla , B. , Cescatti , A. and Vesala , T . 2003 . Footprints and feches for fluxes over forest canopies with varying structure and density . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 106 , 437 – 459 .

[CIT0019] Myllynen , M. , Aarnio , P. , Koskentalo , T. and Malldci , M . 2006 . Air Quality in Helsinki Metropolitan Area year in 2005 (in Finnish) . YTV Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council .

[CIT0020] Mäkeld , K. , Laurilcko , J. and Kanner , H . 2005 . Road traffic exhaust gas emissions in Finland. LIISA 2004 calculation software (in Finnish). Technical Research Centre of Finland , Buildings and Transport , Research Report RTE 2881/05 .

[CIT0021] Nemitz , E. , Hargreaves , K. J. , McDonald , A. G. , Dorsey , J. R. and Fowler , D . 2002 . Micrometeorological measurements of the urban heat budget and CO2 emissions on a city scale . Environ. Sci. TechnoL 36 , 3139 – 3146 .

[CIT0022] Rannik , U. , Altimir , N. , Raittila , J. , Suni , T. , Gaman , A. and co-authors. 2002. Fluxes of carbon dioxide and water vapour over Scots pine forest and clearing. Agric. For Meteorol . 111 , 187 – 202 .

[CIT0023] Roth , M . 2000 . Review of atmospheric turbulence over cities . Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc . 126 , 941 – 990 .

[CIT0024] Roth , M. and Oke , T. R . 1995 . Relative efficiencies of turbulent transfer of heat, mass and momentum over a patchy urban surface. J. Atmos. Sci . 52 , 1863 – 1874 .

[CIT0025] Salmond , J. A. , Oke , T. R. , Grimmond , C. S. B. , Roberts , S. and Offerle , B . 2005 . Venting of heat and carbon dioxide from urban canyons at night . J. AppL Meteorol . 44 , 1180 – 1194 .

[CIT0026] Schmid , H. P . 1994 . Source areas for scalar and scalar fluxes . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 67 , 293 – 318 .

[CIT0027] Schmid , H. P . 2002 . Footprint modeling for vegetation atmosphere exchange studies: a review and perspective . Agric. For. Meteorol . 113 , 159 – 183 .

[CIT0028] Schuepp , P. H. , Leclerc , M. Y. , MacPherson , J. I. and Desjardins , R. L . 1990 . Footprint prediction of scalar fluxes from analytical solutions of the diffusion equation . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 50 , 355 – 373 .

[CIT0029] Soegaard , H. and Moller-Jensen , L . 2003 . Towards a spatial CO2 budget of a metropolitan region based on textural image classification and flux measurements . Remote Sens. Environ . 87 , 283 – 294 .

[CIT0030] Sogachev , A. Y. and Lloyd , J. J . 2004 . Using a one-and-a-half order closure model of the atmospheric boundary layer for surface flux footprint estimation . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 112 , 467 – 502 .

[CIT0031] Sogachev , A. and Panferov , O . 2006 . Modification of two-equation models to account for plant drag . Boundary-Layer Meteorol . 121 , 229 – 266 .

[CIT0032] Sogachev , A. , Panferov , O. , Gravenhorst , G. and Vesala , T . 2004b . Numerical analysis of flux footprints for different landscapes . Theoretical and Applied Climatology 80 , 169 – 185 .

[CIT0033] Sogachev , A. , Rannik , U. and Vesala , T . 2004a . On flux footprints over the complex terrain covered by a heterogeneous forest . Agric. For Meteorol . 127 , 143 – 158 .

[CIT0034] Sogachev , A. , Menzhulin , G. , Heimann , M. and Lloyd , J . 2002 . A simple three-dimensional canopy - planetary boundary layer simulation model for scalar concentrations and fluxes . Tellus 54B ( 5 ), 784 – 819 .

[CIT0035] Stull , R. B . 1988 . An introduction to boundary-layer meteorology . Kluwer Academic Publishers .

[CIT0036] Suni , T. , Rinne , J. , Reissell , A. , Altimir , N. , Keronen , P. and co-authors. 2003. Long-term measurements of surface fluxes above a Scot pine forest in Hyytiälä. southern Finland, 1996-2001. Boreal Environ. Res . 8 , 287 – 301 .

[CIT0037] Vogt , R. , Christensen , A. , Rotach , M. W. , Roth , M. and Satyanarayana , A. N. V . 2003 . Fluxes and profiles of CO2 in the urban roughness sublayer. Preprints, 5th International Conference on Urban Climate , Lodz, Poland, International Association for Urban Climate, 321 – 324 .

[CIT0038] Vogt , R. , Christensen , A. , Rotach , M. W. , Roth , M. and Satyanarayana , A. N. V . 2006 . Temporal dynamics of CO2 fluxes and profiles over a Central European city . Theor AppL Climatol . 84 , 117 – 126

[CIT0039] Webb , E. K. , Pearman , G. I. and Leuning , R . 1980 . Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer . Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc . 106 , 85 – 100 .

[CIT0040] Wilczak , J. M. , Oncley , S. P. and Stage , S. A . 2001 . Sonic anemometer Tilt Correction Algorithms . Boundary Layer Meteorol . 99 , 127 – 150 .

Reading: Surface–atmosphere interactions over complex urban terrain in Helsinki, Finland

Original Research Papers

Surface–atmosphere interactions over complex urban terrain in Helsinki, Finland

Authors:

Timo Vesala ,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Leena Järvi,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Samuli Launiainen,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Andrei Sogachev,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Üllar Rannik,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Ivan Mammarella,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Erkki Siivola,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Petri Keronen,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Janne Rinne,

Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Anu Riikonen,

Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Eero Nikinmaa

Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, FI

X close

Abstract

Reference